Norway Education

Universities I Colleges I Schools I Private Training I English Schools

Education and Cultural Activity
The Norwegian people take a strong interest in their cultural heritage. For its relatively small population, the country has produced a disproportionately large number of internationally renowned artists.

Education
Compulsory education was established in Norway by the Primary School Act of 1827. Changes made since the 1960s have reduced regional disparities and increased access for all social groups to the educational system.
Education is free and compulsory in all municipalities for children between the ages of 7 and 16. Norway has almost no illiteracy. For their primary education, children attend a six-year lower school and a three-year upper school. Three years of secondary school is then available. In 1992 Norway had about 3400 primary schools with a combined annual enrollment of 467,500 students and some 780 secondary and vocational schools with a combined enrollment of about 232,110 students.
Norway has four universities and ten colleges of university standing, most of which are administered by the state. These institutions have a combined yearly enrollment of more than 68,000 students. The principal university is the University of Oslo; the others are the University of Bergen, the University of Tromsø, and the Technical University of Norway at Trondheim. Teacher-training schools and other higher educational institutions have a combined annual enrollment of more than 80,600.

Norway, officially Kingdom of Norway (Norwegian Kongeriket Norge), constitutional monarchy in northern Europe, occupying the western and northern portions of the Scandinavian Peninsula. It is bounded on the north by the Barents Sea, an arm of the Arctic Ocean, on the northeast by Finland and Russia, on the east by Sweden, on the south by Skagerrak Strait and the North Sea, and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, which in Norway is also called the Norwegian Sea. The Norwegian coastline extends about 2740 km (about 1700 mi) including all the fjords and offshore islands, the coastline totals about 21,200 km (about 13,200 mi). The passageway between the screen of offshore islands—known locally as the skerry guard—and the mainland, is naturally protected. The country's name, meaning “northern way,” reflects its importance in linking the many small fjord and valley communities that are otherwise separated by rugged mountains. Norway has an area of 323,877 sq km (125,050 sq mi). Oslo is Norway's capital and largest city.
Svalbard, an archipelago, and Jan Mayen, a volcanic island northeast of Iceland, are possessions of Norway in the Arctic Ocean. Bouvet Island, another Norwegian possession, is an uninhabited island in the southern Atlantic Ocean, southwest of the Cape of Good Hope. Norway also claims Peter I Island, off Antarctica, and the portion of the Antarctic continent, lying between longitude 20° west and 45° east, known as Queen Maud Land.

Land and Resources
Norway is an extremely mountainous land, nearly one-third of which lies north of the Arctic Circle. Its coastline is, in proportion to its area, longer than that of any major country in the world. These geographical facts have been especially significant in the historical development of the nation.

Physiographic Regions
Since ancient times the Norwegian people have recognized four main regions in their land: Vestlandet (West Country), Østlandet (East Country), Trøndelag (Trondheim region), and Nord Norge (North Norway), and more recently, a fifth region, Sørlandet (South Country).
The broad bulge that constitutes the southern part of Norway contains the highest parts of the Scandinavian mountain system. These mountains, which trend in a generally southwestern to northeastern direction, separate the West Country from the East Country. The mountains are a complex system of sharp and rounded peaks, called fjell, and high plateaus, called vidder. The ranges include the Dovrefjell in the north, and the Jotunheimen (“realm of the giants”) in the central region. This latter range contains Galdhøppigen, at 2469 m (8100 ft), the highest peak in Scandinavia. In the south is the Hardangervidda, a vast mountain plateau averaging about 1000 m (about 3300 ft) in elevation. The West Country is characterized by the steep descent of the mountains to the sea. During the Ice Age, glaciers cut deeply into former river valleys, creating a spectacular fjord landscape. One of the largest, Sognefjorden, is 160 km (100 mi) long, and, in places, its rock walls rise abruptly from the sea to heights of 1000 m (3281 ft) or more. Three lowland areas contain most of the West Country's population and agriculture: the southern coast of Boknafjord, the lower parts of Hardangerfjord, and the coastal islands. These islands are formed by the strandflate, a rock shelf lying in some places just above—in others, just below—the level of the sea.
The East Country comprises the more gradual eastern slopes of the mountains. This is a land of valleys and rolling hills. The lower parts of the valleys, particularly around the Oslofjord, contain some of Norway's best agricultural land. The East and West countries are connected by a number of valleys, the most important being Hallingdal. The South Country comprises the extreme southern tip of Norway, the focus of which is the city of Kristiansand. It is characterized by particularly pleasant summer weather.
The Trøndelag, located north of the highest mountains, resembles the East Country, with a landscape of valleys that cut through hills and converge on fjords. The focus of this region is the broad Trondheimsfjord, which is sheltered from the sea by peninsulas and islands. A great deal of agricultural land is located around this body of water.
North Norway is a vast region of fjords and mountains. Most of the population is settled on the strandflate coast and islands. The archipelago of the Lofoten and Vesterålen islands, Norway's major coastal island groups, is formed by the glaciated tops of an ancient volcanic mountain range, now partially submerged. In the northernmost part of this region the fjords face the cold waters of the Arctic Ocean. From the fjord heads the land rises to the vast Finnmarksvidde, a bleak mountain plateau. This region contains some of the largest glaciers in Europe.

Rivers and Lakes
The Glama (Glomma) in the southeast is the longest river of Norway. With its tributaries it drains about one-eighth of the country's area. Rivers flowing in a southwestern direction along the steep western slope are generally short and have many rapids and falls. Those flowing southeast, along the gentle eastern slope, are generally longer. Norway has many thousands of glacial lakes, the largest of which is Lake Mjøsa in the southeast. One concern of Norway's strong environmental conservation movement is the problem of acid rain, resulting primarily from British industrial pollution and affecting one-third of the lakes in southern Norway.

Climate
The warm waters of the North Atlantic Drift (an extension of the Gulf Stream) flow along the Atlantic coast of Norway and have a pronounced moderating effect on the climate. A maritime climate prevails over most of the coastal islands and lowlands. Winters are mild and summers are normally cool. At Trondheim the mean January temperature is -3.5° C (28° F), and the mean July temperature is 14° C (67° F). Moisture is plentiful the year round. The average annual precipitation on the coast is about 870 mm (about 32.1 in). In the interior, a more continental climate prevails; winters are colder, and summers are warmer. At Oslo the January mean temperature is -4.7° C (24° F) and the July mean is 17.3° C (63° F). Precipitation is generally less here than on the coast, averaging less than 740 mm (less than 29.1 in) annually. In the highlands of North Norway the climate is subarctic. The coastal areas of this region, however, have a moderate maritime climate and most ports, even in the far north, are ice-free in winter.

Vegetation and Animal Life
Forests cover slightly more than one-fourth of Norway's land area. Deciduous forests are found in the coastal districts of southern and southwestern Norway. The principal species here are oak, ash, hazel, elm, maple, and linden. In favored locations birch, yew, and evergreen holly may be found. To the east and north the forests have increasing numbers of conifers. Thick boreal coniferous forests are found in coastal regions and in the valleys of eastern and central Norway. These forests are dominated by Scotch pine and Norway spruce, but also contain birch, alder, aspen, and mountain ash. Wild berries, such as blueberries, cranberries, and cloudberries, grow in most woodland areas. In the far north and at high elevations are tundra regions. The tundra is a treeless heath, with vegetation consisting mainly of hardy dwarf shrubs and wildflowers.
Reindeer, polar fox, polar hare, wolf, wolverine, and lemming are common in the north and in the higher mountain areas. Elk, deer, fox, otter, and marten are found in the south and southeast. Both freshwater and saltwater fish abound. Salmon, trout, grayling, perch, and pike are common in the streams and lakes. Herring, cod, halibut, mackerel, and other species inhabit coastal waters.

Mineral Resources
Norway's principal mineral resources are petroleum and natural gas, which are extracted from the vast reserves located along the continental shelf of the North Sea. Other mineral resources include modest amounts of iron ore, copper, zinc, and coal.

Population
The population of Norway is ethnically homogenous. Apart from several thousand Sami (Lapps) and people of Finnish origin in North Norway, the country has no other significant minority groups, although small numbers of Danes, Americans, Swedes, Britons, and Pakistanis live in Norway.

Population Characteristics
The population of Norway was estimated at 4,297,436 in 1993. Norway has the lowest population density in continental Europe, with about 13 persons per sq km (about 34 persons per sq mi). The population is growing very slowly, with an annual rate of increase of only 0.3 percent during the late 1980s. Life expectancy in Norway is among the highest in the world: 80 years for women and 73 years for men. About half of the country's population lives in the southeast, and more than three-quarters of all Norwegians live within 16 km (10 mi) of the sea. Some 72 percent of Norway's population is urban.

Principal Cities
Oslo is the national capital and the principal port and industrial center. It is also the largest city, with an estimated population of 467,090 in 1992. About one-fourth of the total population of Norway lives in the vicinity of Oslo. Bergen, the cultural center of western Norway and the second-largest city, has a population of about 215,967. Other important cities are the commercial center of Trondheim (139,660) and the port of Stavanger (99,764).

Language
Two forms of the Norwegian language are officially recognized as equal. The older form, Bokmål, is used by about 80 percent of children in schools; 20 percent use Nynorsk (Neo-Norwegian). Sami (Lappish) is spoken by the Sami people in the north. See NORWEGIAN LANGUAGE.

Religion
About 89 percent of the population belongs to the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Norway, though many are non-practicing members. The church is supported by the state, and the clergy is nominated by the king. Complete religious freedom is guaranteed, however, and other churches, mostly Pentecostal and other Protestant, represent about 11 percent of the population. Religious preferences tend to be nominal.

Cultural Life
Norway has preserved a rich folk culture that retains elements from the Viking age (see VIKING ART). Norwegians today have a great interest in preserving folk art and music. The collection of folk music is supported by the government. Modern Norwegian culture has evolved from the great flowering of the arts that occurred in the 19th century under the influence of national romanticism. Early expressions of a truly Norwegian style were produced by the painter Johan Christian Dahl and the composer Edvard Grieg. Other important artists include the composer Christian Sinding, the painter Edvard Munch, and the sculptor Gustav Vigeland, whose sculpture park in Oslo has gained international attention. See NORWEGIAN LITERATURE.

Cultural Institutions
Oslo is the undisputed cultural center of Norway. Bergen, Trondheim, and Stavanger are important regional centers. The country's largest art museum is the National Gallery in Oslo. Natural history museums are located in Oslo, Stavanger, Bergen, Trondheim, and Tromsø. Many other museums display artifacts of regional and national culture; the most notable of these is the Norwegian Folk Museum in Oslo. The municipal library system in Norway, begun in the early 20th century, is patterned after the United States model. In addition, the state maintains specialized libraries, the largest of which is the Oslo University Library (1811), with more than 3.9 million volumes; it also serves as the national library. Also important is the National Archives in Oslo.
Performing-arts organizations include the National Theater and the national ballet and opera, all in Oslo; and the National Stage in Bergen. The Oslo Philharmonic is the principal orchestra; other permanent orchestras are in Bergen and Trondheim. Since 1953 Bergen has held an international music festival each year.

Communications
Radio and television broadcasting in Norway are under government administration, but management is generally free of government intervention. In the early 1990s the country had about 3.3 million radios and some 1.5 million television sets. In the same period about 2.2 million telephones were in use. The newspaper industry, which is heavily subsidized by the government, includes more than 60 daily newspapers, with a combined circulation of almost 2.9 million. Nearly 5200 books were published annually in the early 1980s, giving Norway one of the highest per capita publishing rates in the world.

Government
Norway is a constitutional and parliamentary monarchy that is hereditary. The constitution was enacted on May 17, 1814. Although this document has been amended many times, the principal features remain unchanged.

Executive
Executive power is vested in the king. The king's powers, however, are nominal, and administrative duties are carried out by the cabinet of ministers, which is headed by the prime minister. The king makes all governmental appointments on the recommendation of the party in power.

Legislative
Legislative authority is vested in the parliament, called the Storting. It consists of 165 members popularly elected every four years by all citizens over age 18. The parliament may not be dissolved by the executive. The Storting elects one-quarter of its members to an upper house, the Lagting; the remainder constitute the lower house, the Odelsting.

Judiciary
Norway's highest court is the supreme court, or Høyesterett, consisting of a president and 17 judges. Below this are five (regional) courts of appeal, which hear both civil and criminal cases. In addition, conciliation courts handle civil suits, and district and town courts hear criminal cases. Except in the case of conciliation courts, whose board members are locally elected, all judges are appointed by the king.

Local Government
Norway is divided into 19 counties ( fylker). The counties are divided into rural and urban municipalities, each of which has a governing council, elected every four years.

Political Parties
Although it has recently lost power, the Labor party is the strongest party and has governed almost continuously since 1935, except for the periods when a Conservative-led coalition held power (1981-1986; 1989- ). The Labor program calls for a planned economy and the nationalization of major industries. The other major parties are the Conservative party, which advocates free enterprise; the Center party, which favors the decentralization of decision making in Norway; the Christian People's party, and the Socialist Left party. Minority parties include the Progress party, the Liberal party, and the Norwegian Communist party.

Social Welfare
Health insurance is mandatory for all inhabitants, with the state, the employer, and the individual all contributing to the health fund. All medical care is free. In the late 1980s Norway had 1 doctor for every 441 inhabitants. A compulsory National Pension Scheme that was put into effect in 1967 provides old-age, disability, rehabilitation, widow, widower, one-year paid maternity leave, universal child support, and other benefits.

Defense
The king is commander in chief of the armed forces, which in 1993 totaled some 29,400 men in the army, navy, and air force. A 12- to 15-month military term is compulsory for all male citizens when they reach the age of 19. A home guard, with a strength of about 90,000, serves local areas. The defense of Norway is bound up with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, which the country joined in 1949.

Economy
Although the Norwegian economy is based on free enterprise, the government exercises a considerable amount of supervision and control. The country's large merchant fleet remains of great importance to the economy. The 20th century has been a period of great industrial expansion for Norway, based primarily on extensive and inexpensive waterpower resources, but also aided by the exploitation of offshore mineral resources. The country has one of the highest standards of living in the world; the estimated gross domestic product (GDP) per capita in 1992 was about $27,524. National budget estimates for the late 1980s showed about $41.1 billion in revenue and $38.5 billion in expenditure.

Labor
In the late 1980s Norway had a total employed labor force of 2.1 million, which was distributed among the various economic sectors as follows: agriculture, forestry, and fishing, 6 percent; manufacturing and industry, 23 percent; services and trade, 63 percent; commerce and finance, 7 percent; and other occupations, 1 percent. About two-thirds of the labor force is organized. The Norwegian Federation of Trade Unions comprises 34 national unions with a total of about 780,000 members.

Agriculture
Agriculture accounts for 4.4 percent of the annual Norwegian gross domestic product (GDP). Because of the mountainous terrain and poor soils, less than 3 percent of the total land area is cultivated. Grains are grown in the East Country and the Trøndelag. The West Country and North Norway specialize in livestock raising and dairy farming. The leading crops in 1991 (with their annual production in metric tons) were barley (663,000), oats (568,000), potatoes (415,000), and wheat (246,000). In the same period the country had 2.2 million sheep, 974,000 cattle, and 728,000 hogs. Norway is self-sufficient in many agricultural products, but grains, fruits, and vegetables must be imported.

Forestry
The Norwegian forestry industry accounts for a relatively small proportion of Norway's yearly GDP and of the country's annual exports. Forestry is concentrated in the East and South countries, where 60 percent of the productive forestland is located. Most forestland is owned by private individuals; state ownership is important only in North Norway. In 1990 annual timber production totaled about 11.8 million cu m (about 413 million cu ft), most of which was softwood.

Fishing
The fishing industry provided 6.5 percent of total export revenue in 1991. Since the early 1970s, fish farming (particularly salmon and sea trout) has been intensively developed by the government. Norway ranks as one of the leading fishing nations in the world, and the large motorized fishing fleet has expanded its catch area to the banks of Newfoundland. The total yearly marine catch in 1990 was about 1.8 million metric tons. Important species caught include cod, blue whiting, Norway pout, mackerel, herring, prawns, and other fish.

Mining
Before offshore drilling for petroleum began in the 1970s, mining was relatively unimportant in Norway. This sector now accounts for up to 13 percent of the GDP; the percentage in any given year depends on world petroleum prices. Petroleum production began on a trial basis in 1971. In 1974 a pipeline was completed to carry crude oil to Teesside, England. By 1991, the annual crude petroleum production was 93.4 metric tons; natural-gas production was 27.3 billion cu m (955.5 billion cu ft). Natural gas is piped to both Scotland and Germany. Other mineral products included iron ore (metal content, 2.2 million metric tons), coal (390,000), zinc (17,500), iron pyrites (306,000), lead concentrates (3,000,000), and copper (17,393). The largest iron mines are located at Sydvaranger near the border with Russia. All the coal is mined in the Svalbard archipelago.

Manufacturing
Enterprises engaged in manufacturing account for about 15 percent of the yearly GDP of Norway. The electrochemical and electrometallurgical industries form the most important sector of manufacturing. These industries need an abundance of inexpensive electrical power, which Norway can supply. Although all raw materials for the country's aluminum industry must be imported, Norway produces about 4 percent of the world's supply of refined aluminum. It is also an important producer of ferroalloys.
Norway has traditionally been a major shipbuilding nation, but its share of the world's new tonnage was less than 1 percent in the mid-1980s. Shipbuilding declined dramatically in the late 1970s as the industry encountered financial problems; many shipyards have since shifted some of their capacity to the production of equipment for the oil and gas fields. Other major manufactures include machinery, pulp and paper products, textiles, confections, and other food products. The country has several petroleum refineries and a major integrated iron and steel plant at Mo, which is situated near the Arctic Circle.

Energy
In the early 1990s Norway obtained 72 percent of its total energy requirements from electricity, 21 percent from petroleum, and 7 percent from solid fuel and natural gas. Annual electricity production was about 103.8 billion kilowatt-hours, nearly all of which was generated by waterpower stations. Norway is one of the world's leading producers of hydroelectricity, some of which is exported.

Transportation
Building roads and railroads is difficult and expensive because of Norway's rugged terrain, and in much of the country water traffic is still important. Norway is served by a road network of about 89,135 km (about 55,390 mi), 68 percent of which is paved. The road network is most dense in the East Country. Railroads are state operated and have a total length of 4027 km (2502 mi), more than half of which is electrified. Coastal transport, of both passengers and freight, is especially important in the West Country, the Trøndelag, and North Norway. The coastal towns of Bergen (in the southwest) and Kirkenes (near the Russian border) are linked by daily boat service. Oslo is the country's principal port. The Norwegian merchant marine, with 1831 vessels, is one of the largest in the world. It is an important source of foreign exchange earnings. Domestic air service is also well developed. The country has 57 airports, with the main international airport at Oslo.

Currency and Banking
The basic monetary unit of Norway is the krone (6.73 kroner equal U.S.$1; 1994). The krone is divided into 100 øre. The central bank is the Bank of Norway (established 1816), which is the sole bank of issue. Norway also has some 195 savings banks and 27 commercial banks.

Foreign Trade
The composition and direction of Norwegian export trade changed dramatically in the 1970s with the development of North Sea petroleum and natural-gas reserves. Norway is now Europe's largest exporter of these two products, which together normally account for between one-third and one-half of the country's total annual exports. Other major exports include machinery, aluminum, iron and steel, chemicals, pulp and paper products, and food products consisting mostly of fish. Imports include machinery and transport equipment, petroleum products, chemicals, office machines, and ores. In 1991 annual exports were valued at about $34 billion and imports at $25.5 billion. The three most important trading partners were Great Britain (which takes about 27 percent of all exports), Sweden, and Germany. Other important trade partners include the United States, Denmark, and the Netherlands.

History
According to archaeological research, Norway was inhabited as early as 14,000 years ago by a hunting people with a paleolithic culture derived from western and central Europe. Later, colonies of farming people from Denmark and Sweden were established in the region. These settlers spoke a Germanic language that became the mother tongue of the later Scandinavian languages. These new arrivals made their homes on the shores of the large lakes and along the jagged coast. Mountains and fjords formed natural boundaries around most of the settled areas. In time social life in the separate settlements came to be dominated by an aristocracy and, eventually, by petty kings. By the time of the first historical records of Scandinavia, about the 8th century AD, some 29 small kingdoms existed in Norway.

The Viking Period
Inevitably, the kings turned their attention to the sea, the easiest way of communication with the outside world. About AD 800, ships of war were built and sent on raiding expeditions, initiating the era of the Vikings. The northern sea rovers were traders, colonizers, and explorers as well as plunderers. Around AD 875 they established settlements in Ireland, Britain, and Iceland and in the Orkney, Faeroe, and Shetland islands. A century later, in about AD 985, Eric the Red led Vikings to Greenland from Iceland; a few years later, his son, Leif Ericson, was one of the first Europeans to explore North America. Bands of the northern Vikings penetrated Russia, where their influence on the Russian state is still the subject of scholarly debate and research. Others settled in France, where they became the ancestors of the Normans of Normandy.
In the 9th century the first successful attempt to form a united Norwegian kingdom was made by King Harold I, called the Fairhaired, of Vestfold (southeast Norway). Succeeding to the throne of Vestfold as a child, Harold managed to establish his supremacy over all Norway shortly before 900, but at his death about 933 his sons divided Norway, with Eric Bloodaxe as overking. Dissensions and wars among the heirs disrupted the temporary unity, and many of the petty rulers refused to surrender their independence. In addition to the domestic struggles, Danish and Swedish kings were attempting to acquire Norwegian territory.

Christianity Introduced
In 995 Olaf I, a great-grandson of Harold I, became king. Before his accession Olaf had lived in England, where he had been converted to Christianity. He took the throne with the firm purpose of forcing Christianity on Norway and was partially successful. Five years after his accession he quarreled with King Sweyn I of Denmark and was killed in battle. Norway was divided for a short time but the country was reunited by Olaf II, who made himself king of Norway in 1015. He continued the religious work of his predecessor, using the sword against all who refused to be baptized. By about 1025 Olaf was more powerful than any previous Norwegian king had been. He aroused the enmity of the powerful nobles, who, together with Canute II (the Great), king of England and Denmark, in 1028 drove Olaf into exile in Russia. Two years later Olaf returned and was killed in battle. Subsequently he was canonized as Norway's patron saint.

Native Kings
On the death of Canute in 1035, Olaf's son, Magnus I, was called from Russia by partisans of his father. He became king and then united Denmark and Norway under his rule. For the next three centuries a succession of native kings ruled Norway. Although internal confusion and wars between rival claimants to the throne disrupted the country intermittently, Norway began to emerge as a united nation, enjoying a comparative prosperity brought by its great trading fleets. The Norwegians had become strongly Christian, and a powerful clergy was one of the strongest influences in the kingdom. In 1046 Magnus made his uncle Harold Hårdråde coruler. At the death of Magnus one year later, Harold became king as Harold III; he was killed while participating in the invasion of England in 1066. The last king of the line of Harold III was Sigurd I, whose rule lasted from 1103 until his death.
Dynastic conflict followed the death of Sigurd. Of the many later kings, the most notable was Sverre, king from 1184 to 1202. A statesman of great ability, Sverre built a strong monarchy and considerably weakened the power of the clergy and the great nobles. During the reign of Hakon IV from 1217 to 1263, Norway reached the apex of its medieval prosperity and political and cultural power. Iceland was added to the kingdom in 1262, and royal authority was greatly increased by Håkon and his son, Magnus VI; the landed aristocracy was virtually crushed by Håkon V, who reigned from 1270 to 1319. After that the old noble families gradually declined, and for the most part the Norwegian people became a nation of peasants. Commercial activity was usurped by the increasingly powerful Hanseatic League.
The death of Håkon V in 1319, without male heirs, gave the throne to King Magnus II of Sweden, the three-year-old son of Håkon's daughter. In 1343 Magnus was succeeded by his son, Håkon VI, and in 1380 the latter's son, Olaf II, king of Denmark, became king of Norway as Olaf IV. The young king exercised only nominal rule, the power being in the hands of his mother, Margaret I. When he died, he was succeeded by his mother as ruler of Norway and Denmark and, in 1389, of Sweden also. To obtain German support against the dukes of Mecklenburg, who claimed the Swedish throne, Margaret had her grandnephew, Eric of Pomerania, elected king.

Union with Denmark and Sweden
By the Union of Kalmar in 1397, the three kingdoms were made a single administrative unit. Norway became a province of Denmark and Lutheranism its official religion. Norwegian prosperity and culture declined steadily after the union. Moreover, the plague, called the Black Death, had swept Norway in the 14th century, greatly reducing the population. Sweden and Denmark were larger and wealthier than Norway, which the Scandinavian kings, for the most part, neglected. During the subsequent four centuries Norway remained stagnant under the arbitrary rule of Danish officials.
The Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815) finally occasioned the end of the union. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1814, Denmark, an ally of France, was compelled to sign the Treaty of Kiel, ceding Norway to the king of Sweden. The Norwegians, however, disavowed the treaty. They declared themselves an independent kingdom, drew up a liberal constitution, and offered the Crown to the Danish crown prince Christian Frederick (later Christian VIII). The Norwegian move was disapproved by the European powers, and, at the head of an army, Marshal Jean Bernadotte, later King Charles XIV John, persuaded Norway to accept the Treaty of Kiel. In return for this acceptance, Norway was allowed to retain the newly promulgated constitution. By the Act of Union of 1815, Norway was given its own army, navy, customs, and legislature and permitted full liberty and autonomy within its own boundaries.

Second Union with Sweden
After 1814, the Norwegian Storting, or legislature, was chiefly occupied with stabilizing and improving the financial condition of Norway and in implementing and guarding its newly won self-government. Despite the bitter opposition of Charles XIV John, an autocratic monarch, the Norwegian legislature passed a law in 1821 abolishing the Danish-created peerage. The Storting held that the true Norwegian nobles were the peasant descendants of the medieval barons. Norwegian nationalism increased, and the Storting complained that Swedish treatment of Norway was not consistent with the spirit of the Act of Union and with the status of Norway as a coequal state. At length, in 1839, Charles XIV John appointed a joint committee of Swedes and Norwegians to revise the wording of the Act of Union. King Charles died in 1844, before the committee submitted its report; his son, Oscar I, admitted the justice of many Norwegian claims and made himself popular by granting Norway a national flag for its navy, although the flag bore the symbol of union with Sweden.

Ascendant Nationalism
The liberal movement in Norwegian politics, accompanying the surge of nationalism, became more pronounced after the revolutions of 1848 in the major countries of Europe. Political nationalism was bolstered by intellectual and cultural nationalism. Norwegian folktales and folk songs were collected and arranged and became extremely popular. Norwegian dictionaries, histories, and grammars were compiled. The literary renaissance included such writers as Henrik Ibsen, Bjornstjerne Bjornson, Jonas Lie, and Alexander Kielland.
When, in 1860, Sweden began to propose revisions in the Act of Union designed to give the ruling country additional powers, the two greatest Norwegian political parties, the Lawyers party and the Peasant party, combined to form the liberal Venstre (“Left”) party and blocked the revisions. Another significant controversy between the two countries was occasioned by renewed Swedish attempts at constitutional revision, including establishment of the royal right to dissolve the Storting. Led by Johan Sverdrup, president of the Storting, the Norwegian legislature engaged in a long struggle with King Oscar II. Oscar was forced to yield in 1884. Norwegian policy then centered on demands for a separate consular service and a Norwegian flag for the merchant marine without the symbol of union. The flag was approved by Sweden in 1898, but Sweden balked at the demand for a consular service. In 1905, after protracted negotiations, the Norwegian ministry then in office resigned and subsequently refused Oscar's request that they withdraw their resignations. As a result the Storting declared that Oscar was no longer ruler of Norway and proclaimed the country an independent kingdom. In a plebiscite in August 1905 the Norwegian people voted overwhelmingly for separation from Sweden. The Swedish Riksdag ratified the separation in October. A month later Prince Carl of Denmark accepted the Norwegian crown as Hakon VII.

Independence
The Norwegian government, dominated by ministers with liberal politics, became one of the most advanced in Europe in matters such as unemployment insurance benefits, old-age pensions, and liberal laws concerning divorce and illegitimacy. In 1913 Norwegian women achieved the right to vote in all national elections, and Norway has promoted equality in the workplace with progressive social policies. Women play a prominent role in the country's politics.
After the beginning of World War I in 1914 the sovereigns of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark agreed to maintain the neutrality of the Scandinavian countries and to cooperate for their mutual interest. The policy of neutrality and friendship thus established continued to be the joint policy of all three nations after the war ended. The world economic depression that began in 1929 affected Norway considerably because of its dependence on commerce. The Labor party was elected to power in 1935 and continued the policies of moderation and political liberalism that had dominated Norwegian politics since 1905.
Norway maintained its traditional neutrality when World War II began in 1939. Despite sympathy for Finland during the Russo-Finnish phase of the conflict, Norway rejected an Anglo-French demand for transit of troops to aid Finland. German maritime warfare along the Norwegian coast, however, made neutrality increasingly difficult. On April 8, 1940, Great Britain and France announced that they had mined Norwegian territorial waters to prevent their use by German supply ships. The next day German forces invaded Norway.
Assisted by the Nasjonal Samling (National Union) party and disloyal Norwegian army officers, the Germans attacked all important ports. Vidkun Quisling, head of the Nasjonal Samling, proclaimed himself head of the Norwegian government. King Håkon and his cabinet, after an unsuccessful attempt at resistance, withdrew to Great Britain in June. For five years thereafter, London was the seat of the Norwegian government-in-exile. Political leaders in Norway refused to cooperate in any way with Josef Terboven, the German commissioner. In September Terboven dissolved all political parties except the Nasjonal Samling, set up a so-called National Council composed of the party members and other German sympathizers, and announced the abolition of the monarchy and the Storting. These and other still more repressive measures of the Germans and their puppet government, headed by Quisling, were met with mass resistance by the Norwegian people. Quisling proclaimed martial law in September 1941 because of large-scale sabotage and espionage on behalf of the Allies.
The leaders of the Resistance in Norway cooperated closely with the government-in-exile in London, preparing for eventual liberation. The German forces in Norway finally surrendered on May 8, 1945, and King Håkon returned to Norway in June. To punish traitors, the death penalty, abolished in 1876, was restored. Quisling, along with some 25 other Norwegians, was tried and executed for treason.

Labor Governments
The government-in-exile resigned after temporary order was established. In the general elections of October 1945, the Labor party won a majority of votes, and a labor cabinet was headed by Einar Gerhardsen. The party remained in power for the next 20 years. Under its stewardship, Norway developed into a social democracy and welfare state, became a charter member of the United Nations (UN) in 1945, participated in the European Recovery Program in 1947, and joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949. The NATO membership, by which the country abandoned its traditional neutrality, was tacitly approved by the Norwegian people in the elections of October 1949.
The Norwegian economy came out of the war badly damaged, both by German exploitation and by domestic sabotage; retreating German troops burned many northern towns. Reconstruction, however, began at once, directed by the Labor government, which soon took over the planning of the entire economy, reinforcing the country's position in international markets and redistributing the national wealth along more egalitarian lines. Within three years, the Norwegian gross national product had reached its prewar level. This development was accompanied by new social legislation that greatly increased the welfare of the citizens. In 1959 Norway became one of the founding members of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA).

Political Shifts
The parliamentary elections held in September 1961 resulted in the failure of the Labor party for the first time since World War II to win a majority of seats, although it kept its place as the leading party. Gerhardsen, who had been prime minister since the end of the war, except for an interval from 1951 to 1955, was designated once again to head the cabinet. In 1965 the Labor party was defeated in general elections, ending a 30-year rule. King Olaf V, who had succeeded Håkon VII on the latter's death in 1957, then asked Per Borten, leader of the Center party, to form a government. He headed a coalition of nonsocialist parties. Economic policies, however, did not markedly change. Norway instituted a comprehensive social security program in 1967.
In 1970 Norway applied for membership to the European Community, or EC, (now called the European Union), a move that gave rise to increasing dissension within the government. Early in the following year Borten resigned after charges were made that he had divulged confidential information. Trygve Bratteli of the Labor party then formed a minority government that campaigned strongly for EC membership. In a referendum in 1972, however, the voters vetoed the government's recommendation. As a result, the government resigned and was succeeded by a centrist coalition headed by Lars Korvald of the Christian People's party. In May 1973 Norway signed a free-trade agreement with the EEC. Labor suffered considerable losses in the 1973 elections, but Bratteli again was able to form a minority government.
Bratteli resigned in January 1976, but the party remained in power until the elections of September 1981, headed from February to October by Gro Harlem Brundtland, Norway's first woman prime minister. The nonsocialist parties gained a comfortable majority in September, and Kåre Willoch of the Conservative party formed a coalition government in October. A broader coalition government, again headed by Willoch, was formed in 1983 and was reelected in 1985.
The country's economic prospects brightened considerably in the late 1960s, when oil and gas deposits were discovered in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea; exploitation by a state company began in the 1970s. Oil from the North Sea fields accounted for some 30 percent of Norway's annual export earnings in the early 1980s. Oil prices dropped abruptly in 1985 and 1986, and the prospect of lower tax revenues and reduced export earnings led the Willoch government to call for higher gasoline taxes in April 1986. He lost a vote of confidence on the issue and was succeeded by a minority Labor government led by Brundtland in May. She resigned after inconclusive elections in September 1989, carrying Labor into the opposition.
Jan P. Syse of the Conservative party succeeded Brundtland as prime minister, heading a minority center-right coalition. The Syse government's tenure, however, was very short; unable to agree on a common position concerning future relations with the European Community (now the European Union), it fell in October 1990. Syse's government was replaced the following month by a coalition headed by Labor's Brundtland. King Olaf V died in January 1991 and was succeeded by his son, Harald V. In 1993, Norwegian officials, led by Foreign Minister Johan Holst, played an integral part in peace negotiations between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization; Holst died in January 1994. The XVIII Winter Olympic Games were held in Lillehammer in February 1994. On May 4, 1994, the European Parliament endorsed membership in the European Union for Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Austria. Talks with Norway had previously stalled because of a dispute over fishing rights in Norway's North Sea waters. A referendum on entry into the European Union was scheduled for a vote by Norwegian voters in November 1994.

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